Disparities in sports participation behavior among Chinese residents – Nature.com

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Scientific Reports volume 15, Article number: 8788 (2025) Cite this article
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As an important way to improve national health, foster social harmony, and facilitate economic growth, physical activities have emerged as the focus of the government and the entire society in China. However, the popularity of physical activity has been uneven. Gender, urban and rural areas, social and economic status and other factors account for the disparities in sports participation. Therefore, identifying and understanding the mechanisms that contribute to these disparities is crucial for formulating fair and effective sports promotion policies. This paper employs data from the CGSS2021 National Comprehensive Survey to delve into the social structural factors influencing sports participation, especially the specific effects of gender disparities and urban-rural disparities in sports participation and sports watching behavior as to provide empirical support for formulating more accurate and inclusive sports development strategies. The study discloses the following results: (1) A comparison of the physical activity levels of men and women reveals that the former are less inclined to engage in physical activity and more likely to watch sports events; (2) With the education level ascends, there is a concomitant augmentation in both participation in physical activity and in watching sports events; (3) Rural males have the lowest likelihood of engaging in physical activity and watching sports events than other groups; (4) The education level exerts the most significant influence on the motivation for physical activity in male group; (5) Males have a greater propensity to participate in physical activity after watching sports events, and those who participate in physical activity are more prone to watch sports events. To boost sports participation for all, it is indispensable to formulate detailed sports policies to meet the specific needs of different groups. Consider gender equality and balanced allocation of urban-rural resources, thereby promoting the health of Chinese residents and the overall well-being of society.
In recent years, global sports participation rates have shown a downward trend, which means physical inactivity has become a major public health challenge. As reported by the World Health Organization in 2024, approximately one-third (31%) of adults globally fell below the recommended levels of physical activity by 2022. This proportion experienced an increase of approximately 5% from 2010 to 2022 and is anticipated to further rise to 35% by the year 2030. The World Health Organization (WHO) advises that adults should engage in a minimum of 150 min of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 min of vigorous-intensity physical activity each week. This recommendation aims to mitigate significant health risks, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, dementia, and various forms of cancer. Nevertheless, a significant discrepancy remains between the actual and desired outcomes. Particularly in the high-income Asia-Pacific region and South Asia, the rates of physical inactivity are as high as 48% and 45%¹ respectively. In China, cross-sectional findings from the Chronic Disease and Risk Factor Surveillance suggest that the rates of physical inactivity among young people rose from 17.9% in 2010 to 22.3% in 2018, and the rate of increase is even higher than that observed in the age group of 35 and above. The participation rate of work-related moderate-to-vigorous physical activity dropped from 79.6 to 66.8%, while participation rate of recreation-related physical activity rose, although at a relatively low level². The data suggest that China is still faced with serious challenges in tackling physical inactivity problem.
In previous academic researches, scholars have primarily proposed strategies aimed at enhancing residents’ sports participation. These strategies have focused on value and efficacy, as well as the underlying influencing factors and theoretical mechanisms. For instance, Won & Park posit that philanthropy and social interaction are critical factors influencing sports participation. They posit that the promoting of sports-related philanthropy and social activities may enhance overall sports participation³; Casey and several other scholars suggest that a supportive and inclusive sporting environment fosters widespread participation⁴; Burgueño and some scholars delineates a set of family-oriented sports programs with the goal of enhancing the collective motivation of families to participate in physical exercise⁵; Taks suggests that sporting events and promotion activities of local clubs serve as a method to enhance community participation rates⁶.Previous studies, both practical and theoretical have generally overlooked the issue of disparities in sports participation among residents. This oversight may have compromised the accuracy of policy formulation and implementation. A review of the extant literature reveals significant disparities in sports participation across various demographic groups, including age, occupation, and living background. The failure to acknowledge these differences could result in the implementation of a “one-size-fits-all” policy, which aims to address all issues by implementing a uniform solution. However, this approach may not effectively engage the groups that are the least physically active. It is imperative to acknowledge that human beings are the primary agents involved in sports participation, and their intrinsic value lies in facilitating optimal human development. Consequently, from the perspectives of developmental stakeholders or through value-oriented lenses, research on the disparities in sports participation among Chinese residents should be conducted at the individual level. In particular, a differentiation analysis among diverse groups is crucial for informing interventions that align more closely with actual needs and enhancing both the relevance and operability of policies.
In this context, the present study employs a differentiated approach to analyze the current state and heterogeneity of sports participation among Chinese residents. This analysis is conducted in a comprehensive and systematic manner, utilizing data from the 2021 China General Social Survey (CGSS). The study focuses on exploring the disparities in sports participation across various demographic groups, including age, gender, and urban-rural distinctions. Furthermore, it investigates how these social structural factors specifically influence sports participation behaviors. By examining these disparities, this paper offers targeted policy recommendations aimed at promoting equitable access to physical activities among diverse groups. In doing so, it seeks to provide a robust theoretical and practical foundation for fostering integrated development within urban-rural and regional sporting contexts.
The study of social inequalities in physical activity emerged in the mid-20th century, with initial research focusing on descriptive statistics and case analyses. These studies generally concentrate on the sports participation among specific demographic groups including ethnic minorities and women. Utilizing comparative methodologies, they analyzed disparities in sports participation frequency and intensity between these specific demographic groups and the mainstream population. Early researches involved descriptive statistical analyses that investigated gender and racial disparities in physical activity⁷. During the 1980s and 1990s, the convergence of sociology and sports research led to a substantial advancement in research methodologies. During this period, researchers began to employ more quantitative analytical techniques, such as regression analysis and variance analysis. These advancements enabled scholars to assess disparities in physical activity among various groups with greater precision and to investigate the underlying factors contributing to these disparities. Miočić⁸, Carayanni⁹ and some other scholars conducted studies that employed regression analysis and variance analysis The utilization of multilevel modeling analyses enabled researchers to account for both individual- and district-level variables, thereby facilitating a more profound comprehension of how the distribution of sports facilities impacts sports participation in a specific community. The advent of information technology and the diversification of data access have led to the adoption of increasingly sophisticated methodologies for conducting sociological research in sports. For instance, researchers like Novak¹⁰, Liao¹¹, Dong, H¹² and Dong, F¹³ have employed structural equation modeling and longitudinal data analysis. These methodologies enable the examination of long-term trends and their impact on individual sports behavior. In addition, researchers have started to utilize big data analytics to process large datasets and reveal more intricate social inequalities¹⁴.
In the nascent stages of researches on social inequalities in sports, scholarly attention was predominantly focused on clarifying the effects of gender and ethnicity on individuals’ participation in sporting activities¹⁵. These initial perspectives typically viewed inequality in physical activity as a direct manifestation of social structures and cultural biases. Over time, scholars have increasingly recognized the complexity and multidimensional nature of this inequality, particularly since the onset of the new century. This evolution has prompted scholars to incorporate additional variables, such as socio-economic status, educational background, and geographic location into analyses, alongside a broader sociological perspective. For instance, Tonts¹⁶ proposes that participation in sporting activities represents a form of social capital, in accordance with Bourdieu’s theory of social capital. In this context, sports venues function as arenas for the accumulation of both social class and capital. The progression of globalization and information technology has prompted a shift in research paradigms, emphasizing the importance of a global perspective and multicultural communication. Recent studies have begun to explore how globalization affects sports culture and influences sports participation among various social groups¹⁷. Additionally, there has been an increased focus on the role of gender studies in physical activities, with research indicating how media can shape expectations of sports figures and sports consumption behavior through analyzing gender disparities¹⁸. Recent research has begun to focus on how digital technologies influence inequalities in sports participation. For instance, social media and online platforms offer new avenues for engaging in physical activities. However, these technologies may also amplify existing inequalities in sports participation due to the fact that there exists disparities in individuals’ access to digital resources^19,20.
The gender inequality that exists in physical activities is a profound social phenomenon rooted in the intricate interplay of cultural, social, and economic factors. Within the domain of sports, gender roles and stereotypes are particularly salient. These factors not only influence individual participation opportunities but also significantly impact sports policies and organizational structures²¹. Sports culture itself has pronounced gendered characteristics and often perceives competitive sports as a symbol of masculinity, emphasizing traits such as strength, competition, and aggression that are commonly associated with the male identity. Conversely, women are often expected to engage in activities deemed “feminine,” such as gymnastics and ballet. This dichotomy in the allocation of sporting activities to different genders has the effect of limiting women’s opportunities to participate in a broader range of sporting activities²². Moreover, the disparity that female athletes also have significantly lower exposure and access to resources in professional sports than male counterparts reflects the gender bias presented in media coverage and commercial sponsorships²³.The physical education in schools serves as a critical venue for forming and reinforcing gender inequality in sports. Research indicates that physical education curricula and activities tend to offer male-dominated sports, while neglecting or providing limited options for female-oriented athletic programs²⁴.This educational practice not only restricts sports participation of female students, but also establishes a gender-segregated perspective on sports culture during their adolescence. Furthermore, gender inequality is closely linked to economic factors. In many cultures, due to lower economic status, women often find it challenging to afford the costs associated with physical activities, such as purchasing equipment and paying club fees²⁵. The constraints imposed by economic disadvantage not only curtail women’s prospects for engagement in sports but also diminish their overall participation in physical activities.
Individuals from higher-income groups tend to have greater access to resources and opportunities for engaging in a variety of sports. These economic advantages allow them to incur membership fees for private fitness clubs, purchase high-quality sports equipment, and partake in more costly physical activities such as golf and skiing²⁶. Higher income not only provides the group with greater opportunities for sports participation but may also enable individuals from higher-income groups to reside in communities that are better-equipped. These communities often boast superior sports amenities and a wider array of sporting activities. The impact of income on sports participation is also reflected in the psychological and behavioral motivations of the group²⁷. Individuals with higher incomes tend to have more flexible work schedules and greater leisure time, both of which are conducive to their engagement in physical activities. Furthermore, higher-income groups are more likely to receive education and information that promote healthy lifestyles, thereby further increasing their likelihood of participating in physical exercise²⁸.
In addition to the aforementioned factors, ethnicity and religious^29,30 beliefs also serve as significant social factors influencing sports participation. The influence mechanisms of these factors are often more indirect than those of gender, urban-rural distinctions^31,32,33, education^34,35,36, and income. The role of ethnic factors in sports participation is typically closely linked to cultural traditions and community support. For instance, certain ethnic groups may encounter limited access to sports facilities due to prolonged social marginalization, which directly restricts their ability to engage in physical activities³⁷. Furthermore, the cultural preferences for sports among different ethnic groups may also influence their level of participation³⁸.The influence of religious beliefs on physical exercise is primarily reflected in the moral and behavioral norms governing participation in physical activities³⁹. Political identity, as a component of an individual’s social attributes, may influence their choices and levels of participation in physical activities. The correlation between political affiliation and an individual’s socioeconomic status, values, and lifestyle choices suggests a potential indirect effect on their engagement in physical exercise. Furthermore, the degree to which individuals identify with a particular political ideology has been demonstrated to influence their level of trust and support for sports organizations, thereby affecting their propensity to engage in sports activities^40,41. In the context of investigating disparities in sports participation, the evolution of research methodologies has transitioned from early qualitative description to more advanced quantitative analysis. This shift empowers researchers to assess and interpret the phenomena of inequality in sports participation with greater precision. Concurrently, the academic focus has broadened beyond a singular consideration of gender or race to encompass the interplay of multiple factors, including gender, educational attainment, and socioeconomic status. This shift in perspective underscores the notion that inequalities in sports participation are multidimensional issues influenced by a wide array of social and cultural factors.
Table 1 summarizes the relevant influencing factors identified in existing studies. In summary, this paper integrates multiple factors into a comprehensive model for thorough analysis, aiming to provide a more holistic perspective for understanding and addressing inequalities in sports participation.
As one of the fundamental demographic characteristics, gender occupies a central position in research on sports participation. Existing studies have demonstrated that gender differences significantly influence participation rates in physical activities, with males typically exhibiting higher levels of engagement in physical activities^21,22,23. This disparity is influenced not only by traditional gender roles but also by the societal and cultural expectations regarding gender in physical activities²⁴. It is therefore argued that an examination of the influence of gender on physical activity participation can assist in the revelation of the role of social construction and cultural norms in physical activity. Social construction theory, which is predicated on gender roles, posits that male and female behaviour is heavily influenced by social expectations and cultural norms⁴². Societal expectations of men often include the demonstration of qualities such as strength, competitiveness and courage, which can result in their increased participation in high-intensity, competitive sporting activities. This gender disparity is evident not only in actual participation rates, but also in societal perceptions of physical activity. Conversely, traditional perceptions of women’s sports activities are predominantly confined to relatively softer types of sports, thereby limiting their participation in other sports to a certain extent. Moreover, gender role stereotypes have had a significant impact on women’s participation in sports, with societal attitudes holding that women are unsuitable for high-intensity confrontational sports. This results in women experiencing social pressure and internal self-perception dilemmas, which significantly restricts their participation in sports⁴³. However, concomitant with the ongoing progression of society and the escalating popularity of the notion of gender equality, gender disparities in sports participation are not static or immutable⁴⁴.Recent years have seen an increase in the number of women participating in sports that were previously considered to be exclusively male domains. Women’s football, basketball and boxing, for instance, have witnessed a surge in female participation, indicating a shift in societal attitudes and norms. Concurrently, there has been a notable change in the participation patterns of men’s sports. Contemporary men encounter numerous pressures, including financial obligations and the accelerating demands of modern life, which diminish their inclination to engage in conventional high-intensity sports⁴⁵. Furthermore, governments and international organisations have played an active role in leading and promoting a series of policies and initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality in sports. The International Olympic Committee (IOC), for instance, has implemented a series of pragmatic and efficacious measures, including the incorporation of women’s events and the augmentation of the proportion of female athletes participating in the Olympic Games. These measures are intended to facilitate a balanced development of both men’s and women’s sports, thereby providing substantial support for the growth and development of female athletes⁴⁶.At both the national and regional levels, certain subjects have taken active measures to establish a social environment conducive to the participation of women in sports activities. These measures have been implemented through a variety of means, including the establishment of an equal training facility system, the augmentation of resources for sports events, and the enhancement of media publicity and exposure. The objective of these measures is to motivate a greater proportion of the female population to participate in a range of sports programmes. The hypothesis put forward is as follows:
H1: men participate in physical activity less frequently than women.
In contemporary society, the rise of gender equality awareness has had a substantial impact on the level of acceptance and participation of women in sports culture. Although the act of watching sports has become less subject to the traditional gender division of labour, gender differences still profoundly influence people’s viewing choices. Research has found that women are more likely to watch sports with higher aesthetics and skills, such as gymnastics and figure skating, while men prefer more powerful and competitive sports, such as football and basketball^47,48. This discrepancy is attributable not only to the differing reinforcement of aesthetic experiences by gender roles, but also to the influence of media and market preferences. Historically, sports with a predominantly male demographic have received greater media coverage and event broadcasts, resulting in higher levels of attention and resource allocation. Conversely, female-dominated sports, despite their unique appeal in terms of artistry and spectacle, continue to experience imbalances in media exposure and event promotion⁴⁹. The following hypothesis is thus formulated:
H2: men watch sports more frequently than women.
Through the lens of spatial sociology, gender differences are influenced by social resources and cultural environments⁵⁰. Urban-rural disparities fundamentally reflect differences in the distribution of social resources and cultural environments. However, their effects are often not isolated; rather, they manifest through interactions with the specific characteristics of individuals^51,52,53. The likelihood of sports watching is amplified or diminished through interactions with other individual characteristics⁵⁰. Given that the influence of gender-related variables on sports culture is rooted in a broad spectrum of cultural, social, and economic conditions, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3: The interaction between gender and household registration type has a significant impact on sports participation and watching behavior, with the influence of urban-rural household registration varying by gender.
The level of education and income similarly influence the extent of participation in physical exercise. The research conducted by Hallmann⁵⁴ indicates that individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to participate in physical activities, due to the fact that education enhances individuals’ awareness of health and their appreciation for the value of physical activity. Eime²⁸ posits that education not only provides people with knowledge about the benefits of physical activities, but also it enhances their opportunities for participating in such activities through social networks and social capital. Moreover, higher education institutions typically offer a wide range of sports facilities and organized activities, which assist students in establishing sustainable exercise habits⁵⁵. Increased education level is also related to the social recognition and expectations surrounding participation in physical activities. Individuals with higher education levels may place greater emphasis on their appearance and health status due to societal status and occupational demands, making them more likely to engage in fitness and physical activities to maintain their image and health. Similarly, individuals with a higher level of education typically possess a greater awareness of health issues; they are more inclined to understand and take health-related advice on regular physical exercise⁴⁰. At the same time, they tend to possess enhanced cognitive abilities and information processing skills, which enables them to better comprehend and appreciate the tactics, strategies, and competitive spirit inherent in sports competitions⁵⁵. The ability to comprehend complex information enables them to have a deeper understanding of the intrinsic meanings of sports events, including the rules of the game, athletes’ performances, and strategic decisions. Consequently, individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to perceive watching sports as a meaningful cultural activity rather than merely a form of entertainment. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H4: The higher an individual’s level of education, the greater their inclination to participate in physical exercise.
H5: The higher an individual’s level of education, the greater their tendency to watch sports events.
Considering that the influences of gender and education in society are often interwoven, individuals with higher educational attainment typically possess greater cultural capital, which makes them more inclined to engage in cultural and recreational activities, including sports. However, the socialization process of gender roles leads to significant disparities of educational influence on sports participation between males and females. The higher the level of education, the more interest and participation males will have in sports as the society encourage them to view physical activity as a means of demonstrating competitiveness and physical prowess. In contrast, while females with higher education also gain access to more resources and capabilities for sports participation, traditional societal expectations of female roles may result in disparities between their choices of sport types and frequency, especially in more competitive sports choices⁵⁶. Therefore, the interaction between gender and educational attainment may significantly influence sports participation, particularly regarding the disparities in sports watching and participation behaviors. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
H6: The interaction between gender and educational attainment has a significant impact on participation in sports and watching behaviors, with the influence of educational attainment varying by gender.
Watching sport is not only a leisure and recreational behavior, but can also be an important motivational factor for individuals to participate in sports. It has been shown that watching behavior can further promote an individual’s participation in actual sport activities by increasing his or her interest in, identification with, and motivation for the sport⁵⁷. However, this transition process may differ significantly between males and females, with gender role socialization and cultural norms playing a key role.
According to gender role theory, males are socialized to identify more with traits associated with strength and competition. Watching sports, especially highly competitive and confrontational events such as soccer and basketball, can strengthen men’s sports identity and behavioral motivation, leading them to transform their interest in watching into actual physical activity behavior. This transformation mechanism is particularly pronounced in the male population, as sports culture is endowed with symbolic meanings of masculinity, and watching has become an important way for men to access and participate in sports⁵⁸. In contrast, women’s watching behavior is driven more by recreational and social factors, and their interests are likely to be focused on aesthetically pleasing and narrative-oriented sports. Although these programs are equally capable of stimulating women’s interest in exercise, it is often difficult to translate this interest into actual exercise behavior due to traditional societal expectations of women’s roles. In addition, women’s participation as spectators may be constrained by external conditions such as time allocation, resource availability, and social support systems⁴³. In contrast, men are more likely to feel the allure of competition through watching and internalize it as a driver for actual action. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
H7: The positive impact of watching sports on physical activity varies by gender, with men’s watching behavior more likely to translate into actual physical activity actions.
The data used in this study are from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2021, which was launched in 2003 and is one of the first nationwide, comprehensive, and continuous scientific surveys in China⁵⁹. It aims to systematically collect data from various levels of society, including communities, households, and individuals, in order to summarize the trends of social change, explore topics of great scientific and practical significance, promote the openness and exchange of scientific research in China, and provide data for international comparative research⁶⁰. The data collection of the CGSS covers a wide range of aspects, such as occupations, the labor market, values, health, etc., which provides a rich cross-section of data for research. The survey was conducted primarily through face-to-face interviews, using a multi-stage stratified sampling technique to ensure a representative and scientifically valid sample^61,62. The questionnaire design paid particular attention to the core themes of this study, including the frequency of physical activity and sports watching. These questions are designed to capture respondents’ physical activity behaviors in detail, thereby providing empirical data to examine influences on multiple dimensions of individual health, social participation, and life satisfaction. As a result, the data from this survey reflect a wide range of individual and household characteristics, providing a reliable basis for this work to explore the multidimensional factors underlying variability in physical activity participation. With these comprehensive data, the study aims to shed light on the evolution of individual lifestyles and their social and economic implications in a rapidly changing Chinese society.
This study primarily focuses on two core behaviors: participating in physical exercise and watching sports events. These two variables comprehensively capture individuals’ participation in physical activities, effectively reflecting their active degree of sports participation within the realm of sports culture. To quantify the degree of participation in “general physical exercise” and “watching sports events” the original question option coding in the survey is taken. In this context, general physical exercise is measured by the frequency with which respondents engaged in physical activity during their leisure time over the past year. The coding scheme is as follows: 1 indicates “exercising daily”; 2 denotes “exercising several times a week”; 3 represents “exercising several times a month”; 4 signifies “exercising once or twice a year or less”; and 5 means “never exercising”. Conversely, watching sports events assesses how often respondents watched sports events during their leisure time over the past year. The corresponding coding for this variable is: 1 for “watching daily”; 2 for “watching several times a week”; 3 for “watching several times a month”; 4 for “watching once or twice a year or less”; 5 indicating “never watching”.
Based on a comprehensive consideration of variable influence and study focus, gender and educational attainment are selected as the primary explanatory variables, while ethnicity, religious beliefs, years of education, health status, and family income are included as control variables. The reason why gender and educational attainment have been chosen as core variables is that they represent fundamental dimensions within social structures that exhibit significant differentiation effects on physical activity participation. The extensive literature support for gender disparity in sports participation indicates that there are inherent socialization disparities between males and females regarding their exposure to and involvement in physical activities. Urban-rural disparities reveal how geographical and environmental factors affect accessibility to sports facilities and opportunities for participation. The construction of independent variables aims to meticulously capture various social and individual-level factors that may influence exercise habits and watching behavior. Among these factors, gender is treated as a basic demographic characteristic encoded using dummy variable coding; specifically, males are coded as (1) while females are coded as (0). Educational attainment is measured by the highest year of schooling attained. The urban-rural classification is based on data from the CGSS questionnaire; urban areas include “the central urban area or suburban districts adjacent to cities/counties,” whereas rural areas encompass “towns outside city/county jurisdictions or rural regions beyond city/county boundaries”.
Other variables, such as ethnicity, religious beliefs, years of education, health status, and household income, may also exert a potential influence on participation in physical activities⁶³. However, control variables are designed in this study to ensure the precision of the analysis. For instance, years of education and household income are directly associated with an individual’s socioeconomic status, which may influence both their ability and willingness to participate in physical activities⁶⁴. By controlling these variables, the study can more clearly reveal how gender and urban-rural distinctions influence participation in physical activities through social structures and cultural identities. Furthermore, by managing these variables, the research can effectively differentiate the unique impacts of core social variables, thereby providing a deeper understanding and explanation of inequalities in sports participation. This approach ensures that the research findings are widely applicable and interpretable, contributing to targeted policy recommendations aimed at promoting the accessibility and equity of physical activities. In terms of variable control, ethnic groups are categorized based on survey responses into Han Chinese, Mongolian, Manchu, Tibetan, Zhuang and others, each assigned a unique numerical identifier. Considering the diversity of religious affiliations in China, dummy variables are similarly employed to classify religious beliefs, including no religious beliefs and various specific beliefs. The treatment of years of education is more complex, considering both actual years of education completed and the square value of years educated. The latter aims to capture the non-linear characteristics regarding how education influences participation in physical activities—that is to say, changes in potential impacts on sports participation may occur once educational attainment reaches a certain threshold. For political affiliation analysis, dummy variables distinguish between ordinary citizens, CCP members, and other democratic party members; This distinction seeks to uncover differences in individual participation in physical activities across varying political identity backgrounds. Health status quantification employs self-assessment scores for direct measurement. Family income at the household level is incorporated directly from survey results.
Considering that the dependent variable is an ordered categorical variable, the ordered logistic regression model is suitable for situations where the dependent variable consists of ordered categories. This model can provide estimates of the impact of each independent variable on the probability transitions between categories of the dependent variable. Therefore, this study employs an ordered logistic regression model to analyze the influence of various factors on participation in physical exercise and watching sports events.
Let (:{Y}{i}) represent the dependent variable for the (:i)-th observation (frequency of physical exercise or frequency of attending live matches), and let (:{X}{i}) denote the corresponding vector of independent variables, including gender, ethnicity, religious beliefs, years of education, political affiliation, health status, family income, and urban-rural classification. The model can be expressed as follows:
(log itleft( {Pleft( {{Y_i} leqslant j} right)} right)={alpha j} – {beta ^prime }{X_i}+{varepsilon _i})
Among them, (:logitleft(Pleft({Y}{i}=jright)right)) the expression indicates that the value of the dependent variable for the (:i)-th observation is less than or equal to the logarithmic odds of category (:j); (:{alpha:}{j})refers to the intercept term, and for each ordered category (:j), there exists a distinct intercept; (:beta:) refers to the estimation of the parameter vector, the impact of independent variables on the probability of transition between categories of the dependent variable; (:{epsilon:}{i}) refers to the residuals of the model.
As illustrated in Table 2, the mean frequency of physical activity participation is 2.840, suggesting that most individuals participate in physical activity several times a week to several times a month. In the sample, the proportion of females is 45.2%, which is slightly lower than that of males. The mean value for the urban-rural variable is 0.440, indicating that a majority of the sample is concentrated in suburban or central urban areas, with a clear distinction from rural and other classifications. The average value for political affiliation stands at 0.120, with a variance of 0.320, reflecting a predominance of community members among respondents. Furthermore, all correlations between variables are below 0.6, signifying minimal risk of multicollinearity.
In order to ensure the robustness of the model parameter estimates and to exclude the possible interference of multicollinearity, this study conducted the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) test on the main explanatory variables. The VIF test is a standardized measure of the degree of multicollinearity among independent variables, which centers on evaluating whether or not each variable is able to be predicted by the others in a linear fashion. The VIF test provides a standardized measure of the degree of multicollinearity between independent variables. When the VIF value is significantly high (usually with 10 as the empirical threshold), the explanatory variables of the model may have high linear correlation, which affects the stability of regression coefficient estimation and the explanatory power of the model.
As illustrated in Table 3, the VIF values for all core explanatory variables and their interaction terms are all less than 10, with an average VIF value of close to 1.7 and a maximum value of no more than 3. This indicates that the correlation between the variables in the model is weak, and the risk of multiple covariance is negligible. With regard to the performance of specific variables, the interaction terms between gender and household registration type and between gender and highest level of education exhibit a linear relationship in the model. However, their VIF values are in the reasonable range and have not reached the level requiring intervention. Meanwhile, the VIF values of control variables such as health status, religious beliefs, income level, etc., are more satisfactory, further verifying the rationality of the model setting. The aforementioned findings suggest that the regression model developed in this study exhibits notable robustness in terms of variable selection and configuration. The model demonstrates substantial independence among its explanatory variables and is devoid of any substantial multicollinearity interference. Consequently, the subsequent regression analysis and inferences derived from this study can be conducted with a high degree of statistical confidence.
According to the regression results presented in Table 4 (Table 4: Model 1, Model 2), hypotheses H1, H2, H4, and H5 have all been validated. There are significant differences in sports participation among Chinese residents, which are influenced by a combination of factors including gender, ethnicity, education level, income, and political affiliation.
The model (1) examined the factors influencing residents’ participation in physical exercise. The findings indicate that gender exerts a substantial influence on the population’s engagement in physical activity, with males exhibiting a lower propensity to sports participation in comparison to females. (β=-0.138, p < 0.01). Additionally, an increase in educational attainment correlates positively with the likelihood of engaging in physical exercise (β = 0.0675, p < 0.01). Furthermore, a higher frequency of watching sports events enhances the probability of residents participating in physical activities (β = 0.308, p < 0.01). The positive influence of health status on physical exercise is also significant (β = 0.0619, p < 0.01).Regarding ethnic influences, Han residents are more inclined to participate in physical exercise compared to individuals from minority groups (β = 0.177, p < 0.05). In terms of political affiliation and income level, party members demonstrate greater enthusiasm for participation than non-party members (β = 0.344 p < 0.01), while high-income residents show a higher propensity for engagement compared to low-income counterparts (β = 0.0888, p < 0.01).
The model (2) measured the factors influencing residents’ watching sports events. The findings indicate that gender exerts a substantial influence on sports watching behavior, with males demonstrating a greater propensity for engaging in this activity compared to females. (β = 0.0722, p < 0.01). Additionally, higher levels of education are associated with an increased probability of watching sports events (β = 0.0143, p < 0.01). Residents who engage in physical exercise are more likely to watch sports events (β = 0.0579, p < 0.01). Although the effect of health status on sports watching is relatively weak, it still demonstrates a positive significance (β = 0.0198, p < 0.05). Regarding ethnic factors, Han residents exhibit a lower willingness to watch sports events compared to minority groups (β=-0.136, p < 0.01).
The findings of Models (1) and (2) indicate that gender and ethnicity exhibit different forms of heterogeneity in sports participation behavior. Men exhibit a lower propensity to engage in physical activity compared to women. Conventional gender role expectations impose heightened economic pressures on men within society, as evidenced by the prevalence of extended and arduous work hours across numerous industries. Within the manufacturing sector, for instance, male employees frequently encounter prolonged work shifts and regular overtime, which hinders their ability to allocate sufficient time for physical activity. In contrast, women tend to prioritize their own health and quality of life maintenance, often with greater flexibility in allocating exercise time within the context of family responsibilities. This results in higher levels of physical exercise among women. Consequently, men exhibit a higher propensity for engaging in sports watching. The communication and cultural construction of sports events are often tailored to men’s interests, with sports media primarily focusing on male spectators in terms of event broadcasting, commentary, and advertising. For instance, during the soccer World Cup, there was a significant presence of broadcasting resources, in-depth tactical analysis programs, and advertisements targeting sports brands with men as the primary consumer demographic. Furthermore, men frequently employ sports events as a pivotal subject in social interactions, leveraging these events to enhance social interaction and identity. In contrast, women’s leisure and entertainment preferences exhibit greater diversification, with sports events receiving comparatively lower priority.
Han Chinese residents demonstrated higher levels of sports participation compared to ethnic minorities; however, they exhibited a comparatively lower propensity to engage in sports watching. This phenomenon may be attributed to the unique cultural and sporting activities characteristic of ethnic minority communities.The influence of educational attainment, income, and political affiliation on sports participation behavior is found to be significant across various dimensions. Notably, educational level is found to promote sports participation and spectatorship among residents. Individuals with higher education levels possess a more profound comprehension of the health benefits associated with physical activity and possess greater financial resources to support such activities. In the research industry, for instance, there is a high concentration of highly educated individuals who understand the importance of physical activity in relieving work pressure and maintaining cognitive acuity. These individuals have the financial means to incur expenses such as professional sports equipment and gym memberships. For men, educational attainment has been shown to increase interest in competitive sports, with highly educated men in urban areas often engaging in marathons and basketball leagues. For women, however, social stereotypes impede their participation in non-competitive sports and cultural activities. Nonetheless, education has been demonstrated to encourage non-competitive sports participation and increased consumption of sports and culture, thereby promoting overall sports participation across both genders.
According to the regression results presented in Table 4 (Table 4: Model 3, Model 4), it is assumed that hypotheses H3, H6, and H7 are all validated. The interaction term between gender and other variables (type of household registration, education level, form of sports behavior, etc.) has a significant effect on participation behavior in physical activity and watching sports.
The interaction term between gender and type of household registration exhibits a substantial negative effect in both models (participation in physical activity: β = −0.501, p < 0.01; watching sports: β = −0.0885, p < 0.01). This finding indicates that the impact of gender on sports behavior varies by rural and urban household type, with rural males demonstrating significantly lower levels of participation in physical activity and watching behavior compared to other groups. The imbalanced allocation of resources between urban and rural regions may be a salient factor contributing to this disparity. The dearth of sports facilities in rural areas, coupled with the reinforcement of traditional gender roles concerning men’s economic responsibilities, curtails their opportunities and time for engagement in sports activities. Moreover, the less pronounced emphasis on watching behavior in rural culture might further erode this group’s motivation to partake in the consumption of sports and culture.
The interaction term between gender and highest level of education exhibits a significant positive effect on physical activity in model (3) (β = 0.0243, p < 0.01), yet not on watching sports in model (4) (β = 0.00243, p > 0.1). This finding indicates that higher levels of education exert a more pronounced motivational effect on men’s engagement in physical activity and a weaker effect on gender disparities in sports watching. Men with higher levels of education may regard physical activity as a means to showcase social status and health awareness, whereas women’s physical activity behaviors are driven more by maintaining health than by competitive or social demands, despite their higher levels of education.
The interaction term between gender and participation in physical activity exhibits a similarly significant positive effect on sports watching (β = 0.0678, p < 0.01).As illustrated in Fig. 1, there is a demonstrable correlation between physical activity and sports viewing, particularly among males. This observation suggests the presence of a bidirectional feedback mechanism in sports behavior, whereby exercise behavior positively impacts viewing behavior, though this relationship is not as pronounced among females.
The interaction term between gender and watching sports games exhibits a significant positive effect on physical activity (β = 0.318, p < 0.01).As illustrated in Fig. 2, the observation of sporting events has been demonstrated to exert a substantial motivational influence on male engagement in physical activity. The acquisition of skills, strategies, and motivation for the respective sport is typically achieved through the observation of gameplay, which in turn fosters further motivation to engage in physical activity. In contrast, the motivational effect observed in the female group was found to be comparatively modest, a phenomenon that may be attributed to the tendency of female viewers to engage in more recreational and social viewing behaviors.
A recent analysis of moderating effects revealed that the role of gender in sports behavior is significantly influenced by types of urban and rural household registration, education level, and forms of sports behavior. Specifically, rural males face considerable disadvantages in sports participation and watching behavior. Moreover, increased education level promotes male sports exercise more than female. Finally, males are motivated to exercise by watching games. To illustrate, when watching professional soccer leagues, male spectators can meticulously discern players’ proficiencies and strategies, such as running position, passing skills, and tactical coordination. These spectators then apply these observations to their own soccer training regimens, such as emulating the shooting movements of prominent players and familiarizing themselves with the team’s defensive tactical configuration. This process significantly enhances their motivation and proficiency in soccer training. In contrast, watching behaviors of female spectators differ considerably. In the context of figure skating, female spectators prioritize the entertainment and social aspects of the sport, such as the competitors’ costumes, the performance’s aesthetic appeal, and the athletes’ personal narratives. For instance, following a figure skating competition, female spectators are more inclined to engage in discussions about the style of performance and attire with their peers, while concurrently displaying a reduced propensity to draw parallels between the technical maneuvers exhibited during the competition and their own physical activity. This observation signifies that the motivational influence of witnessing a competition on women’s participation in physical activity is relatively negligible. A comparable phenomenon pertains to the bi-directional mechanism that enhances interest in spectating through exercise, which exhibits a weaker effect among females. This is due to the fact that men develop a more profound comprehension of the rules, tactics, and competitive spirit of athletes through active participation in sports such as regular basketball training or marathon running. The experience and knowledge accumulated from such engagement in exercise significantly enhance their interest in and attention to sports competitions, which in turn motivates them to watch sports competitions more frequently. For instance, men who engage in basketball exercise exhibit heightened enthusiasm for NBA games, attributable to their enhanced capacity to appreciate the teamwork and individual skill of the players. In contrast, within the female demographic, this reciprocal relationship between exercise and game watching lacks statistical significance. Women’s participation in physical activity is predominantly driven by fitness, sculpting, or stress-relieving objectives, as evidenced by the high attendance at yoga or calisthenics classes. Consequently, they exhibit a reduced propensity to develop a strong desire to watch specific sports, even in cases where they have engaged in certain sports. This reduced inclination does not result in a significant increase in the frequency of watching relevant matches, as observed among male participants. These findings underscore the intricate social mechanisms underlying gender disparities and provide a crucial foundation for the development of gender-sensitive sports policies.
The effect of interaction term between gender and participation in physical exercise on physical exercise.
The effect of interaction item between gender and watching sports on sports watching.
This study analyzes the impact of gender and urban-rural disparities on participation in physical exercise and watching of sports events, revealing the multifaceted factors contributing to inequalities in physical activity participation. A finding that the influence of gender on participation in physical activities is significant, aligns with a substantial body of prior research^65,66. The socialization process of gender roles begins in early childhood and continues to influence individuals’ participation in sports throughout adulthood. Due to differing societal expectations for males and females, there exists a disparity in their levels of participation in physical activities⁶⁷. Despite the shift in gender roles, men continue to predominate in assuming the role of the breadwinner of the family, particularly in the financial and technology sectors, where protracted work hours and arduous tasks are the norm. This circumstance imposes constraints on their availability for physical exercise. Concurrently, women are demonstrating heightened competitiveness in the workplace, prioritizing work-life balance, with calisthenics and yoga gaining popularity as exercise modalities⁶⁸. The heightened social acceptance of women’s exercise has engendered a conducive environment for their physical activity. Despite the advancement of gender concepts, men tend to neglect health management in their pursuit of professional success. It is imperative for all sectors of society to make concerted efforts to advocate health promotion mechanisms to help men find time for exercise and psychological adjustment in their busy schedules, so as to maintain their physical and mental health. From the perspective of the communication ecology of sports events, the communication system of sports events has long been dominated by male spectators⁶⁹. Media broadcasts, including soccer, basketball, and other popular programs, provide detailed explanations of tactics and data, catering to male spectators’ inclination for in-depth analysis of competitive sports. For instance, soccer event commentators employ in-depth analysis through tactical layouts and players’ technical data, such as shooting accuracy and passing success rate, to enhance the emotional and informational interaction between male spectators and sports events. In terms of advertising strategy, the allocation of advertising resources for sports events is closely centered on the characteristics of the male consumer group⁷⁰. Numerous advertisements for sporting goods, automobiles, beer, and other brands emphasize the core elements that are highly compatible with masculinity, such as power, speed, and competition, in terms of both creative conception and content presentation. Through the depiction of male athletes’ struggles on the field and the portrayal of competitive scenes, these advertisements elicit a profound emotional response and stimulate consumer desires among the male demographic. This, in turn, serves to further solidify the strong correlation between sports events and the male demographic, thereby reinforcing the influence of sports events in the context of male consumption culture and socialization⁷¹. In the context of social interaction, sporting events represent a pivotal component within the male social ecosystem. Whether in professional settings, during leisure communication, or in social gatherings among friends, the subject of sports events has historically garnered significant popularity and been a frequent topic of discussion⁷². The act of watching sports events provides male spectators with a means of deriving entertainment and leisure, while concurrently immersing them within the social fabric of sports events. This integration fosters a profound emotional connection to the team or athletes they champion, thereby fortifying their social cohesion and sense of identity. Consequently, sports events emerge as a pivotal conduit for male social interaction and the formation of group identity.
Conversely, the map of women’s leisure activities exhibits a greater diversity of coloration. Reading, art appreciation, shopping, and other activities play a significant role in women’s interests, offering comprehensive satisfaction of their aesthetic desires and providing a diverse array of social topics and interactive communication platforms. Consequently, sports events occupy a relatively lower position in women’s leisure selection, resulting in a notable disparity in the frequency of watching sports events between men and women⁷³. For instance, when the schedules of cultural and artistic activities and sports events coincide, women demonstrate a stronger inclination towards participating in cultural and artistic activities, such as art exhibitions and book readings, to satisfy their spiritual pursuit of culture and art and their demand for aesthetic experience. Conversely, sports events are less likely to be their preferred leisure activity option. However, it is noteworthy that gender differences in sports participation are not static; they are undergoing a dynamic evolution. The expansion of women’s participation in sports, coupled with a re-evaluation and strategic focus on the market value of female spectators by sports media, has led to a steady increase in women’s enthusiasm for sports events⁷⁴. In response to this trend, sports organizations and media agencies have adopted innovative reporting strategies and content structures. These strategies have enabled the exploration of the personal growth stories, emotional journeys, and social values of athletes. This exploration has effectively triggered the emotional resonance and psychological identity of female spectators, thereby successfully broadening the scope and depth of sports event communication among female spectator groups. Furthermore, the exceptional achievements of female athletes in both international and domestic sports events have not only established a compelling example for women’s involvement in sports activities but also invigorated female spectators, inspiring their interest and motivation to participate in sports events. This phenomenon has emerged as a pivotal endogenous driving force for the dynamic adjustment of the gender participation pattern in sports events⁷⁵. While male spectators continue to predominate at sports events, the considerable market potential and growth prospects of female spectators should not be overlooked. It is anticipated that these spectators will catalyze innovative transformations and structural reconfigurations within the sports communication ecosystem in the forthcoming years.
The positive effect of interaction term between gender and sports watching on men’s exercise behavior is found to be statistically significant (β = 0.317, p < 0.01). Specifically, in the context of watching tennis games, male spectators demonstrate a high degree of concentration and in-depth analytical ability, focusing not only on the accuracy and skill of the players’ technical movements, such as serving and hitting the ball, but also extending to the tactical strategy and the logic of rational allocation of physical energy throughout the game⁷⁶. Subsequent to the game, male spectators frequently employ the professional skills and tactical acumen gleaned from watching the game to inform their own exercise regimens. Through the emulation of top players’ technical maneuvers, spectators can optimize their training regimens and physical training programs. This approach enhances the professionalism, relevance, and effectiveness of their exercise activities, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation and sustained enthusiasm for physical exercise⁷⁷. For instance, male tennis enthusiasts who observe renowned players such as Federer and Nadal might not only appreciate their exceptional serving abilities and tactical prowess but also subsequently incorporate these observations into their personal training regimens. Guided by professional coaches, they enhance the stability of their serves and meticulously plan their gym workouts to optimize their physical distribution strategy on the court. This process enables them to transform their observational experiences into tangible enhancements in their exercise practice abilities. The objective is to enhance the physical distribution strategy on the court and facilitate the efficient conversion of spectator experience into enhanced exercise practice ability. This underscores the significant relevance and high conversion rate of male spectators in the process of sports skills learning and practice application.
Conversely, the focus of female spectators differs significantly from that of male spectators. Female spectators prioritize the aesthetic quality of the athlete’s image and the artistic beauty of the game, as well as the emotional narrative behind it. Synchronized swimming events, for instance, have been shown to appeal to female spectators due to their aesthetic appeal, including the athletes’ postures in the water, the choreography of their movements, and the emotional narratives conveyed. These events tend to resonate with female spectators on an emotional level, fostering an appreciation for the aesthetic elements and the emotional narrative. In contrast, female spectators’ engagement with sports events may be less influenced by the technical aspects, tactical strategies, and the practical motivation that male spectators may prioritize. In post-game communication sessions, female spectators tend to prioritize the players’ fashionable styling and the visual appeal of the game, while less emphasis is placed on the application of game elements to personal exercise guidance⁷⁷. These gender differences have also been observed in the context of other sports, such as soccer and basketball. Male spectators have been observed to prioritize the analysis of tactical layouts and technical elements of the game. In contrast, femal spectators have been shown to place greater emphasis on team spirit and the passionate atmosphere that the game evokes. Additionally, female spectators tend to allocate more attention to non-competitive technical aspects, such as players’ attire and on-field interactions. The differentiation of gender differences in the process of sports skills learning and practice transformation profoundly reveals the specificity of different genders in sports cognitive mode, interest-driven mechanism, and behavioral motivation logic. This provides a precise and oriented basis for the formulation and implementation of strategies to promote sports skills learning and practice transformation. This finding underscores the necessity of incorporating the gender dimension as a pivotal factor in the formulation and implementation of strategies aimed at promoting sports activities. It is imperative to devise and implement customized motivation strategies that are tailored to the local context and the distinct needs of the target spectator, with the objective of effectively promoting sports. This assertion underscores the necessity of incorporating gender-related considerations into the promotion of sports activities, and the development and implementation of customized incentive strategies tailored to the distinct characteristics and needs of each demographic group. This approach is posited to effectively stimulate the enthusiasm of diverse gender groups to engage in sports⁷⁸.
The statistical analysis yields a highly significant regression coefficient of 0.0679 (p < 0.01), thereby substantiating the hypothesis that gender exerts a positive influence on sports event watching. To illustrate, a case study of male cyclists reveals a concomitant enhancement in attention and interest in cycling events, concomitant with the pursuit of advanced cycling skills and physical fitness⁷⁹. They have been observed to engage in meticulous study of cycling rules and regulations, in addition to meticulous analysis of the logic behind tactics employed during races. They have also demonstrated a high degree of keen observation and analysis of the performance of riders during various stages of a race, thereby establishing a symbiotic interactive cycle between exercise practice and race watching. Through active engagement in cycling exercise, individuals enhance their physical well-being, thereby fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of cycling events. The professional knowledge and competitive spirit acquired through watching races serve as a source of inspiration, motivating individuals to further enhance their exercise regimens. This, in turn, contributes to the male group’s comprehensive and varied participation in the sports ecosystem.
Conversely, the participation of women in physical exercise is predominantly oriented towards the primary objectives of health maintenance, body shaping, and psychological stress reduction⁸⁰. Aerobic dance, for instance, is a form of exercise in which female participants primarily seek to maintain their physical health, enhance their body’s aesthetic appeal, and alleviate psychological distress. Their exercise demands are comparatively less aligned with the competitive aspects of sports, which hinders the establishment of a direct, logical relationship between exercise practice and the competitive elements of sports events. This dynamic, in turn, fosters a strong interest in watching sports events and a profound motivation to engage in them. This discrepancy is indicative of the gender-specific internal logical structure and incentive mechanism of sports behavior exhibited by men and women. Women demonstrate a stronger inclination toward sports activities that offer physical and mental gratification, abundant social interaction opportunities, and a substantial sense of personal fulfillment. These activities are inherently dissimilar to men’s competitive sports events, thereby underscoring the profound influence of gender on the sports culture ecosystem. This gender discrepancy phenomenon plays a pivotal role in shaping the behavioral patterns of individual sports participation. It also reflects the long-term shaping and profound influence of social culture, traditional concepts, and other factors on the positioning of gender roles and behavioral norms from a macroscopic perspective. This phenomenon has become an important entry point and core research dimension for in-depth investigation of gender issues in the field of sports culture research.
The significant positive impact of educational attainment on sports participation and watching of sports indicates that education plays a crucial role in enhancing individuals’ awareness of the importance of sports and promoting healthy lifestyles. Individuals with higher levels of education typically possess better cognitive abilities, which enables them to better comprehend the value of physical exercise for their health. Additionally, they are often in a stronger economic position to support their sports participation. The viewpoint is consistent with Khan’s⁸¹research findings suggesting the enhancement of education alleviates certain barriers in sports participation. This effect is particularly pronounced for residents in urban areas, where education may compensate for time and resources limitations.
Moreover, rural males face significant barriers in both participating in physical exercise and watching sports events. This disparity can be attributed to the lack of sports facilities in rural areas, the limited availability of cultural and recreational activities, as well as traditional societal expectations regarding male roles⁸².The economic and social responsibilities borne by rural males may result in their insufficient leisure time for exercise. Furthermore, the relatively low cultural emphasis on physical activities in rural areas may also inhibit their sports watching behaviors. Additionally, the impact of education on sports participation differs between males and females, which may be attributed to the varying reinforcement of gender roles through education. For males, an increase in educational attainment often enhances their interest and identification with competitive activities. Particularly within urban environments, highly-educated males are more likely to participate in physical exercise and to watch sports events, viewing these as symbols of social status and health consciousness⁸³. For females, although education has similarly heightened their awareness of health issues, this does not always translate into an interest in competitive sports. Particularly regarding actual participation in sporting events, societal stereotypes of gender roles often lead them to perceive sports primarily as a means of maintaining health rather than as a kind of competitive activity or watching behavior.
The findings of the regression analysis in this study demonstrate that gender exerts a significant influence on sports participation. Due to prevailing gender roles, men encounter greater economic pressures and work longer hours compared to women, resulting in lower levels of physical activity. Conversely, the dissemination of sports events and the male social culture promote increased engagement in sports watching among men compared to women.
In the context of other variables, the dearth of rural sports resources and the influence of traditional beliefs in household registration factor serve to impede the sports participation of rural men. Conversely, increased education has been shown to enhance the willingness and ability of different genders to participate in sports activities. Moreover, good health has been demonstrated to promote both sports exercise and watching. It is also noteworthy that ethnic cultural traditions and customs exert an influence on the sports participation preferences of men and women of different ethnic groups. The impact of religion on sports participation is less pronounced but nevertheless significant. Finally, political affiliation has been shown to increase physical activity and sports participation among party members.
The interaction terms of gender with watching sports and participating in sports activities have significant positive effects on men’s exercise and watching, respectively. Men and women show significant gender differences in these two interactions, reflecting the specificity of different genders in terms of incentives and intrinsic logistic associations of sports behaviors. Participation in sports activities is affected by gender and a variety of factors, and the mechanisms and effects of these factors vary among different gender groups. In the future, the development of sports should consider these factors to promote fairness and diversity in sports participation, to encourage individuals of different genders and backgrounds to participate in sports activities, and to enhance the health and physical literacy of Chinese residents.
This study, while providing relevant empirical results, has several limitations when it comes to the impact of gender and education level on sports participation. For instance, the national data utilized in this research is based on a sample from 2021, which may not fully capture long-term trends or broader social changes. Additionally, the limitations of survey data have hindered an in-depth exploration of individuals’ specific motivations, attitudes, and psychological drivers related to sports participation. Furthermore, this research primarily focuses on the effects of gender and education level, potentially overlooking other significant factors such as individual economic status, social networks, and regional sports policies. Based on the gender disparities and urban-rural disparities, these overlooked factors, which are equally critical, may further complement the mechanisms that influence sports participation.
Future research can be expanded in several key areas. First, longitudinal studies could be employed to track the impact on sports participation behaviors as time and social policies change. Such research would enhance our understanding of the dynamic processes influencing sports participation as they relate to variations in social and economic contexts, thereby providing support for the formulation of more effective promotion policies. Second, individual-level variables like personal sports preferences, physical health status, and life stressors may significantly affect an individual’s level of engagement in physical activities. Additionally, as the potential role of cultural factors in sports participation is crucial, a deeper exploration into sports participation attitudes and behaviors under different cultural backgrounds will serve as an important direction for future research.
Furthermore, given the disparities in resource allocation between urban and rural areas, it is essential to explore how improvements in sports facilities and increased opportunities for physical activities can help bridge this gap. All these studies will help us aim not only to gain a comprehensive understanding of the various factors influencing sports participation but also to provide scientific evidence that supports the development of targeted and impactful measures for promoting physical activities.
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School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Linkai Peng, Zhangbo Yang & Dengyu Chang
Sports Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Linkai Peng & Changjiang Liu
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Peng: writing and revising the paper.Yang: proposing thesis topic and core ideas, reviewing and guiding the revision of the thesis.Chang: Data analysis.Liu: Data organization. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Correspondence to Linkai Peng.
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Peng, L., Yang, Z., Chang, D. et al. Disparities in sports participation behavior among Chinese residents. Sci Rep 15, 8788 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92865-1
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Received: 09 December 2024
Accepted: 03 March 2025
Published: 14 March 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92865-1
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